WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES - NOW  AND THEN.

This page is mainly about the weights and measures used pre decimalisation with an old explanation about decimals that you may not have come across before. Sections are as follow:

METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

The advantages of the metric system are great, and are as follows:-

(a) Reduction from one denomination to another is done by moving the decimal point.

(b) The units of length, surface, solidity and weight are naturally connected.

(c) A convenient measure or weight is taken as a unit; all other measures or weights in the same table are multiples or decimal parts of this unit.

(d) The nomenclature is simple and uniform; the multiples have the Greek prefixes Deka (10), Hecto (100), Kilo (1,000), and Myria (10,000), while the sub-rnultiples have the Latin prefixes Deci, Centi, Milli.

The Metre was originally intended to be the ten-millionth part of the Arc of the Meridian extending from the Equator to the Pole.

A Select Committee of the House of Commons appointed on the 13th February 1895, to inquire whether any and what changes in the present system of Weights and Measures should be adopted, recommended as follows:-

(a) That the the metrical system of weights and measures be at once legalised for all purposes,

(b) That after a lapse of two years the metrical system be rendered compulsory by Act of Parliament.

(c) That the metrical system of weights and measures be taught in all public elementary schools as a necessary and integral part of Arithmetic, and that decimals be introduced at an earlier period of the school curriculum than is the case at present.

On the 6th August 1897, in pursuance of the first of these recommendations, Parliament passed the Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act, 1897 (60 & 61 Vict., Cap. 46), By this statute the use of' metric weights and measures in trade in this country is made lawful, but the Imperial System also remains legal.

The following metric units wore approved by an Order in Council made on the 19th May, 1898:-

The Metre is represented by the distance marked by two fine lines on the ridio-platinum standard bar numbered 16, when at the temperature of O' Centigrade. This bar is deposited with the Board of Trade.

The Kilogram is represented by a cylndrical iridio-platinum standard Kilogratn weight numbered 18, which is deposited with the Board of Trade.

The Litre is represented by the capacity at 0" Centigrade of the cylindrical brass measure marked " Litre, 1897 " (which is deposited with the Board of Trade). and having diameter equal to one half its height.

The unit of linear measure is the Metre (the ten-millionth part of the distance from the

Equator to either pole = 39.37011 inches = 3.280843 feet. = 1.0936143 yards)

The unit of Square measure is the ARE = a square Dekametre.

The unit of Cubic measure is the STERE = a cubic Metre.

The unit of Weight measure is the GRAMME = the weight of a cubic centimetre of water

The unit of capacity measure is the LITRE = a cubic Decimetre.

To indicate multiples of the unit, four Greek prefixes are used

Deka 10 times the unit

Hekto 100

Kilo 1000

Myria 10000

To indicate sub multiples of the unit, three Latin prefixes are used

Deci - 1/10th of the unit

Centi - 1/100th

Milli - 1 /1000th

MEASURE OF LENGTH

1 millimetre 0.03937 inch

10 rnillimetres 1 centimetre 0.3937011 inch

10 centimetres 1 decimetre 3.9370113 inches

10 decimetres 1 metre 3.280843 feet

1.0936143 yards

10 rnetres 1 dekametre 10.936143 yards

10 dekametres 1 hektometre 109.36143 yards

10 hektometres 1 kilometre 0.62137 mile.

10 kilometres 1 myriametre 6.2137 miles.

(A Kilometre is approximately 5/8ths of a mile)

MEASURE OF SURFACE

10 milliares 1 centiare 1 square metre

10 centiares 1 deciare 10 square metres

10 deciares 1 are 100 square metres

10 ares 1 decare 1,000 sqaure metres

10 decares 1 hectare 10,000 square metres

10 rnilliares 1 centiare 10.76427 square feet

10 centiares 1 deciare 11.96033 square yards

10 deciares 1 are 119.6033 square yards

10 ares 1 dekare 0.247110 acre

10 dekares 1 hektare 2.471098 acres

10 hektares 1 square kilometre 0.38611 square mile

The Are and its multiples are used for measuring land , for other purposes the square metre is generally the unit. 0.405 hektare = 1 acre, while 259 hektares = 1 square mile.

MEASURES OF VOLUME (cubic measure)

The unit is the Stere = 1 cubic metere = 61,024 cubic inches

10 centisteres 1 decistere = 3 53148 cubic feet

10 decisteres 1 stere = 1 cubic metre

10 decisteres 1 stere = 1.307954 cubic yards

10 steres 1 dekastere = 13.07954 cubic yards

CUBIC MEASURE

The Cubic Metre is the unit

1000 cubic millimetres 1 cubic centimetre 0.061024 cubic inch

1000 cu centimetres 1 cubic decimetre 61.02391 cu inches

1000 cu decimetres 1 cubic metre = 35.3148 cu ft

1 cubic metre = 1.307954 cu yards.

MEASURE OF CAPACITY

10 millilitres 1 centilitre = 0.070 gill

10 centilitres 1 decilitre = 0.176 pint

10 decilitres ( 1000 cc ) 1 litre = 1.75980 pints

10 litres 1 dekalitre = 2.20 gallons

10 dekalitres 1 hectolitre = 2.75 bushels 10 hectolitres 1 kilolitre

1 litre = 1000.027 cc 1 millilitre = 1 cc

1 kilolitre = 1 cubic metre = 1 stere

MEASURES OF WEIGHT

1000 micrograms 1 milligram 0.015 grain

10 milligrams 1 centigram 0.15432 grain

10 centigrams 1 decigram 1.54323 grains

10 decigrams 1 gramme 15.4323 grains

10 grammes 1 dekagram 5.6438 drams

10 dekagrams 1 hektogram 3.5274 ozs,

10 hektograms 1 kilogram 2.2046223 lbs.

or 15432.3564 gr

10 kilograms 1 myriagram 22.046223 Ibs.

10 myriagrams 1 quintal 1.968412 cwt.

10 quintals 1 tonne 0.984206 ton Troy

The metric carat = 0.2 gram

1 gramme = weight of 1 cc of water.

= 0.03215 oz Troy

= 15.432 grains Apothecaries

= 0.2572 drachm

= 15.432 grains

SQUARE MEASURE

100 square millimetres 1 square centimetre = 0.15500 square inch

100 square centimetres 1 square decimetre = 15.50 square inches

100 square decimetres 1 square metre = 10.7639 square feet

square metre = 1.960 square yards

100 square rnetres 1 are = 119. 60 square yards

10,000 square meters 1 hektare = 2.47106 acres

100 square hektometres = square kilometre = 0.386103 square mile

LINEAR MEASURE

1 inch 25.400 millimetres = 2.54 centimetres

12 inches 1 foot = 3.048 decimetres

=0.30480 metre

3 feet 1 yard = 0.914399 metre

1 fathom 6 ft = 1.8288 metres

1 rod, pole or perch 5.1/2 yds = 5 0292 metres

1 chain 22 yds = 20.1168 metres

1 furlong 220 yards = 201168 metres

40 poles ; 1 furlong = 201168 metres

1 mile 8 furlongs = 1.6093 kilometres

3 miles 1 = 1 league

OTHER MEASURES OF LENGTH

3 barleycorns 1 inch

3 inches 1 palm

4 inches 1 hand

7.92 inches 1 link

9 inches 1 span

18 inches 1 cubit

2.1/2 ft 1 military pace

5 feet 1 geometrical pace

6 feet 1 fathom

25 links 1 pole

4 poles or 100 links 1 chain of land

608 ft 1 cables length

The pole varied in length in different counties - 3 yards in Cheshire and Staffordshire.; 7 yards in Lancashire and elsewhere can be 5 or 6 yards. But by the Weights and Measures Act 1875 5.1/2 yards = 1 pole.

MILE MEASUREMENTS

Statute mile = 1760 yards             Russian verst = 1168 yards

Scots mile = 1984 yards               Italian mile = 1467 yards

Irish mile = 2240 yards                 Spanish mile = 5028 yards

Nautical mile. = 2027.2/3 yards Kilometre =1093.6 yards

Geographical mile = 2,026.6 yards

French mean league = 3,666 yards

SEA MEASURE

6 feet 1 fathom

15 feet 1 chain

1 shackle 1 /8 cable

100 fathoms 1 cables length

10 cables 1 sea mile

A cables length is sometimes taken as 120 fathoms.

The nautical mile is 1/60th part of a degree latitude in the latitude of Great Britain and = 6080 feet

SQUARE MEASURE

1 square inch = 6.4516 centimetres

144 square inches 1 square foot = 9.2903 sq decimetres

9 square feet 1 square yard = 0.836126 sq. metres

30.1/4 square yards 1 square rod, pole or perch

= 25.293 sq metres

40 rods,pole or perches 1 rood = 10.117 Ares

4 roods or 4840 sq yds 1 acre = 0.40468 hectare

640 acres 1 square mile = 259.00 hectares

272.1/4 sq feet 1 rod of brickwork

100 sq feet 1 square of flooring

625 sq links 1 square pole

16 sq poles 1 square chain

10 sq chains 1 acre

30 acres 1 yard of land

100 acres 1 hide of land

40 hides 1 barony

CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE

1728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot

27 cubic feet 1 cubic yard

5 cubic feet 1 barrel bulk shipping

40 cubic feet 1 ton shipping

40cubic feet unhewn timber 1 load

50 cubic feet hewn timber 1 load

108 cubic feet 1 stack of wood

128 cubic feet 1 cord of wood

165 cubic feet 1 standard

277.274cubic inches of water = 1 Imperial gallon and weighs10 Ibs.

2218.192 cu inches = 1 Imperial standard bushel

1 cu foot of distilled water at 62 F and barometer 30 ins weighs 1,000 ounces avoirdupois and contains 6.24 gallons.

20 ozs or 1.1/4 lb of distilled water = 1 pint.

The relationship between the yard and the bushel is not legally defined but a relationship based on capacity measure gives 1 cu yard = 21.022 bushels.

TROY WEIGHT

4 grains = 1 carat

6 carats = 1 pennyweight

24 grains = 1 pennyweight

20 pennyweights = 1ounce

12 ounces = 1 pound

15 pounds = 1 quarter

100 pounds = 1 hundredweight

20 hundredweights = 1 ton of gold or silver.

1 gram = 0.03215 ounce Troy

1 gram = 15.432 grains

The ounce Troy is used for weighing precious metals. The term carat is not a unit of weight for precious metals but a measure of quality being the number of 24ths of pure gold in an alloy, thus a 9ct gold ring contains 9 parts gold and 15 parts base metal.

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT

1 grain = 0.0648 gram

1 dram = 1,772 grams

16 drams 1 ounce = 437.5 grains = 28.350 grams 16 ounces 1 pound = 7000 grains =0.45359243 kg

14 pounds 1 stone = 6.350 kg

28 pounds 1 quarter = 12.70 kg

4 quarters 1 hundredweight (112 lbs) = 50.80 kg

20 hundredweights 1 ton (2240 lbs ) = 1.0160 tonnes

100 lbs 1 central or new hundredweight

8 lbs 1 stone (London meat market )

The new hundred weight, approved by Order in Council 4 February 1879, was used for coarse or drossy materials eg Pitch, tar, resin, tin, iron; all grocery and chandlery ware, silk and all metals except gold and silver. Bread by the Sale of Bread Acts was sold by weight. Some silks were weighed by the great pound of 24 ounces; others by the common pound of 16 ounces.

One pound avoirdupois contains 14 ounces 11 pennyweights and 16 grains Troy, equals 7000 grains.

A stone varied with goods between 8lbs and 20 lb. 14 lb is the weight of a stone for weighing jockeys for horse racing.

APOTHECARIES WEIGHT

1 grain = 0.0648 gram

20 grains 1 scruple = 1.296 grams

3 scruples 1 drachm = 3.888 grams

8 drachms 1 ounce. = 31.1035 grams

1 gram = 0.2572 drachm

1 gram = 0.7716 scruple

1 gram = 15.432 grains

The Apothecaries` and Troy pound of 12 ounces does not exist

The Grain and Ounce are the same as Troy.

APOTHECARIES FLUID MEASURE

1 drop = 1 minim = 0.059 millilitre

60 minirns = 1 fluid drachm = 3.552 millilitres

8 Fluid drachms = 1 fluid ounce = 2.84123 millilitres

20 fluid ounces = 1 pint = 0.568 litre

160 fluid ounces = 1 gallon = 4.5459631 litres

One fl.oz contains 437.5 grains weight of distilled water or 1/160th of an Imperial gallon; one fl drachm = 1/8th fl oz or 54.6875 grains. One minim 1/60th of a fl drachm or 0.911458 grains.

TROY, AVOIRDUPOIS & APOTHECARIES WEIGHTS COMPARED

Grains       oz                     lb

437.1/2   1oz (Avoir)

480         1 (Troy)

5760                                1 (Troy)

7000                               1 (Avoir)

Troy & Apothecaries   Avoirdupois

1 oz                               1.09714 oz

1 lb                               0.82286 lb

175 lb                          144 lb

175 oz                         192 oz

The grain is the same in all three weights.

LIQUID AND CAPACITY MEASURE

1 gill = 1.42 decilitres

4 gills = 1 pint = 0.568 litre

2 pints = 1 quart = 1.136 litres

4 quarts = 1 gallon = 4.5459631 litres

2 gallons = 1 peck = 9.092 litres

4 pecks = 1 bushel = 3.637 dekalitres

8 bushels = 1 quarter = 2.909 hectolitres

36 bushels = 1 chaldron

9 gallons = 1 firkin of ale or beer)

36 gallons = 1 barrel (ale or beer)

42 gallons = 1 tierce

54 gallons = 1 hogshead (ale or beer)

72 gallons = 1 puncheon (ale or beer)

108 gallons = 1 pipe or butt (ale or beer)

There is no legal equivalent of the gallon in cubic inches but scientists have measured it as 277.420 cubic inches.

DRY MEASURE

4 gills 1 pint

2 pints 1 quart

2 quarts 1 pottle

4 quarts 1 gallon

2 gallons 1 peck

4 pecks 1 bushel

8 bushels 1 quarter

2 bushesls 1 strike

4 bushels 1 coomb

2 coombs 1 quarter

36 bushels 1 chaldron

5 quarters 1 Wey or load

2 weys 1 last

A bushel of Wheat on an average weighs 60 pounds ; Barley', 47 lbs, Oats 40 pounds.

The Gallon contains exactly 10 pounds Avoirdupois of Distilled Water at 62'F at a barometric pressure of 1015.9 millibars.

By these are measured all kinds of grain, such as Barley, Wheel, Oats, Peas, &c' , which are stricken with a stick having an even surface from end to end (i.e., made even all over and level with the top of the sides of the measure). The Standard Bushel contains 2,218.192 or about 2,218 cubic inches and a fifth, and measures 19.1/2 inches in diameter, and 8.1/4 inches deep. By Act of Parliament, apples, pears, currants, &c., and goods that " cannot be conveniently stricken " were permitted to be sold by the heaped bushel. 

The" cran " measure was made legal for the sale of fresh herrings under the Herring Fishery(Scotland)Act,1889 The"cran "contains 87.1/2 Imperial gallons, and is equivalent to a cubic capacity of 10,397.77 cubic inches

TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS

WOOL WEIGHT      &          CLOTH MEASURE

7 pounds = 1 clove             2.1/4. inches =1 nail

2 cloves = 1 stone              4 nails = 1 quarter

2 stones = 1 tod                27 inches = 1 Flemish ell

6.1/2 tods = 1 wey             4 quarters = 1 yard

2 weys = 1 sack                 45 inches = 1 English ell

12 sacks = 1 last               54 inches = 1 French ell

                                            37 inches = 1 Scottish ell

COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS

Cr. Credit(or)       a/c account            B/S Bill of Sale

Dr. Debit, debtor A/C account of      B/L Bill of Lading

P. per n/a            no account             B/E Bill of Exchange

ALE AND BEER MEASURE

2 Pints 1 Quart

4 Quarts 1 gallon

4.1/2 gallons 1 pin

2 Pins or 9 gallons 1 firkin.

2 Firkins or 18 gallons 1 Kilderkin.

2 Kilderkins or 36 gallons 1 Barrel.

1.1/2 barrels or 54 Gallons or 3 kilderkins 1 Hogshead

2 barrels 1 Puncheon

3 barrels, or 2 hogsheads 1 Butt

WINE MEASURE

4 Gills 1 Pint.

2 Pints 1 Quart.

4 Quarts 1 Gallon.

10 Gallons 1 Anker (Brandy).

18 Gallons 1 Runlet.

.31.1/2 Gallons 1 Hogshead.

*42 Gallons 1 Tierce,

*63 Gallons 1Hogshead (hhd),

84 Gallons, or 2 Tierces 1 Puncheon,

*2 Hogsheads, or 126 gallons 1 Pipe or Butt,

*2 Pipes, or 252 gallons 1 Tun.

In some parts or the country a gill is reckoned half a pint,

Pipes vary in quantity according to the kind of wine they contain; viz. a pipe of Lisbon 117 gallons, of Port 115, of sherry 108,: of Vidonia 100, of Madeira 92.

An Imperial Gallon measures 277.274 cubic inches, 6 bottles of spirits = 1 gallon. A Barrique ( a Bordeaux measure of Claret) = 225 litres = 499 gallons 1 quart, l.955 pints, or 49.1/2 gallons (very nearly). Spirits, honey,,oil, vinegar, cider, &c..are measured by this measure.

* These are old " Winchester " wine gallons, one of which equals 0..8331 imperial gallons. A hhd. of wine= 52.1/2 imperial gallons. A pipe of wine=105 imperial gallons. 1 Tierce = 1/2 of a pipe..

Over time the nature of barrels and casks have become more machine made and regular in their capacity ( called the `content` = the full quantity). Hand made casks by tradesmen ( `coopers` ) are greatly valued especially by the whisky trade as the raw spirit must, by law , be stored in oak casks for a minimum of 3 years to allow it to mature ).

Brandy

Puncheons (French ) content varies 119 - 130 gallons

Hogsheads 59 - 64

Quarter casks 31 - 33

Octaves 16

California

Barrels 39 - 40

( used for rum and by the whisky trade for maturing spirits )

Geneva

Puncheons 120 - 140

Hogsheads 55 - 68

Quarter casks 32 - 35

Rum

Puncheons (Demerara ) 106 - 116

Hogsheads 52 - 63

Barrels 36 - 38

Puncheons ( Jamaica ) 87 - 115

Hogshead 52 - 57

Barrel 39 - 45

Puncheons ( Cuba ) 118 - 140

Port

Pipes ( Oporto ) 116 - 125

Hogsheads 58 - 60

Quarters 28 - 30

Octaves 14 - 15

Pipes ( Lisbon ) 117 - 119

Hogsheads 58 - 59

Quarters 28 - 29

Tarragona

Bocoye 125 - 155

Puncheons 116 - 120

Puncheon 87 - 91

Pipes 116 - 120

Hogsheads 57 - 60

Sherry

Puncheon 108 - 117

Butts 108 - 115

Hogsheads 53 - 56

Quarter casks 27 - 28

Octaves 13.1/2 - 14

Alicante

Butts 119 - 120

Malaga

Butts 118 - 120

Alsace

Drum 120 - 140

Algeria

Drum 120 - 150

Hogshead 50 - 52

Claret

Hogsheads ( France & Italy ) 48 - 50

Burgundy

Hogsheads (France) 49 - 51

Marsala

Pipes 110 - 112

Butts 111 - 112

Hogsheads ( two types) 46 & 56

Quarter casks (two types) 22 & 28

Madeira

Pipes 93 - 95

Hogsheads 43 - 47

Quarter casks 24

California wine

Hogsheads 40 - 43

Australian

Hogsheads 62 - 70

South Africa

Barrel 37 - 44

Israel

Hogshead 60 - 70

Barrel 39 - 45

Italy ( machine made casks )

Vermouth large 64 - 68

Vermouth small 47 - 51

Light wine 73 - 78

Germany

Stuck 200 - 260

Half stuck 120 - 145

Fuder 200 - 225

Half Fuder 110 - 140

Double Aum 60 - 74

Aum 30 - 40

SIZES OF BOTTLES

Magnum 2 Bott,

Double magnum 4 bottles

Jeraboam 6 bottles

6 bottles 1 gallon

Rehoboam ( or Imperial) 8 bottles

Tappit Hen 6 bottles

1 bottle 1 Reputed quart

PAPER MEASURE

25 Sheets make 1 Quire

20 Quires or 500 Sheets 1 Ream

HandMade Paper

24 Sheets make 1 Quire

472 Sheets 1 Mill Ream

480 Sheets 1 Inside Ream

SIZES OF PAPER

Standard Basic Sizes Other Sizes

Dimensions Dimensions

Large Post 21 x 16.1/2 Sheet and 1/3rd F'cap 22.1/2 x 13.1/2

Demy 22.1/2 x 17.1/2 Sheet and 1/2 F`cap, 25.1/2 x 13.1/2

Medium 23 x 18 Ledger Demy 20 x 15.1/2

Double Cap 27 x 17 Ledger Royal 24 x 19

Royal 25 x 20 Atlas 34 x 26

Double Crown 30 x 20 Double Elephant 40 x 27

Imperial 30 x 22 Antiquarian 53 x 31

International AZ 16.1/2 x 23.3/8

Brown Paper Cut Cards

Dimensions Dimensions

Irish Casing 48 x 36 Thirds 1.1/2 x 3

Casing 46 x 36 Extra Thirds 1.3/4 x 3

Double Imperial45 x29 Town 2 x 3

Elephant 34 x 24 Small 2.3/8 x 3.5/8

Double Four-Pound31 x 21 Large 3 x 4.1/2

Imperial Cap 29 x 22 Court 3.1/2 x 4.1/2

Haven Cap 26 x 21 Large Court 4 x 5

Bag Cap 24 x 19.1/2 Official (Post Card) 3.1/2 x 5.1/2

Kent Cap 21 x 18 Extra Large 4.1/8 x 5.7/8

SIZES OF BOOKS

Fo. = Folio Sheet folded into 2 Leaves or 4 Pages

4to = Quarto 4 8

8vo. = Octavo 8 16

12mo. = Duo decimo 12 24

16mo. = Sexto decimo 16 32

STANDARD SIZES OF BRITISH BOOKS

Size Abbreviation Inches Size Abbreviation Inches

Foolscap octavo FS 6.3/4x 4.1/4 

Demy quarto D4 11.1/4 x 81.3/4 

Crown octavo C8 7.1/2 x 5 

Medium quarto M4 12 x 9.1/2

Large crown octavo lC8 8 x 5.1/4 

Royal Quarto R4 12.1/2 x 10

Demy octavo D8 8.3/4 x 5.5/8

 Imperial quarto Imp4 15 x 11

Medium octavo M8 9.1/2 x 6 

Foolscap folio F fol 13.1/2 x 8.1/2

Royal octavo RS 10 x 6.1/4 

Crown folio Cfol 15 x 10

Imperial octavo Imp8 11 x7.1/2 

Royal folio Rfol 20 x 12.1/5

Foolscap quarto F4 8.1/2 x 6.3/4 

Imperial folio Impfol 22 x 15.1/2

Crown quarto C4 10 x 7.1/2

1 large. s = small may precede some abbreviations.

Old London Postal Districts

   ROMAN NUMBERS

These are expressed by certain letters of the alphabet, viz.: I, V, X, L, C, D and M. When one of these symbols is followed by one of equal or less value the number

indicated is equivalent to the sum of the values of the individual symbols; thus VIII= 5+1+1+1= 8. When a symbol is preceded by one of less value, the number

indicated is equal to the difference of the values of the symbols; thus IV = 5 - 1 =4,

The following table gives the Roman numerals as most frequently found in printed works:-

1 1. 16 XVI.                   75 LXXV.

2 11. 17 XYII.               80 LXXX.

3 111. 18 XVIII.            85 LXXXV.

4... IV. 19 XIX.              90 XC.

5 V. 20 XX.                  100 C

6 VI. 25 XXV.              200 CC.

7 VII. 30.. XXX.           300 CCC.

8 VIII. 35 XXXV.         400 CD.

9 IX. 40 XL.                 500 D.

10 X. 45 XLV.             600 DC.

11 XI. 50 L.                 700 DCC.

12 XII. 55 LV.             800 DCCC.

1-3 XIII. 60 LX            900 CM.

14 XIV. 65 LXV.         1000 M .

15 XV. 70. LXX.         2000 MM.

There exist also less general rnethods of expressing numbers in Roman notation:-e.g., a line placed over a Rornan numeral multi plies its value by 1,000: thus X ( with bar above) = 10,000. Note also that 1,000 is expressed in each of the following ways: I, M (the initial letter of m ille, the Latin word for 1,000), ¥ , and CIÉ (inverted C )

IÉ=500; and each inverted C added multiplies by 10; thus IÉÉ=5000.

1899=MDCCCXCIX, or CIÉIÉCCCXCIX.

N.B.-The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, are Arabic symbols, and all our numbers are formed by these with the help of the cypher 0.

MISCELLANEOUS TABLE

12 Articles make 1 Dozen,

12 Dozen 1 Gross.

12 Gross, or 144 Dozen 1 Great Gross.

20 Articles 1 Score.

5 Score, or 1 Quintal 1 Common Hundred.

6 Score 1 Great Hundred.

Horse Power equals 33,000 foot-pounds of work per minute.

The Acceleration due to gravity at the sea-level in lat. 45' equals
32.1703 feet per second. The Velocity of Light equals 186,300 miles per second.( 186,282.6 miles per sec in vacuo )

The Velocity of Sound equals about 1,130 feet per second.

A Degree of the Equator equals 691.70 miles.

One inch of Rainfall equals 100 tons 9 cwt of water per acre.

One Ton of Water contains 35.9 cubic feet.

One Atmosphere equals 14.71 lb per square inch.

29.22 inches of Mercury = 33.9 feet of Water.

TIME TABLE

60 Seconds 1 Minute.

60 Minutes 1 Hour.

24 Hours 1 Natural Day.

7 Days 1 Week.

4 Weeks, or 29 days 1 Lunar Month.

52 Weeks 1 Day, or 13 Lunar Months 1 D y 1 Year.

365 Days 6 Hours 1 Julian Year.

365 Days 5 Hours 48 Minutes 57 Seconds 39 Thirds = 1 Solar Year.

A Sidereal Day = the lime that elapses between two successive passages of a fixed star over the meridian. The Sidereal day never varies in length ( = 86164.1 mean solar seconds).

An Astronomical Day = the time elapsing between two successive passages of the Sun over the meridian. This exceeds the Sidereal a by nearly four minutes, and is of different lengths at different times of the year.

A Mean Solar Day is the average length of the Astronomical Day. This is what is called in the above table the Natural Day.

A Sidereal Mouth is the period of one complete revolution of the Moon round the Earth. Its length is 27.1/3rd days, or more accurately 27.321661423 days.

A Lunar (or Synodic) Month is the period between two successive conjunctions of the Sun and Moon on the same side of the Earth. In a Lunar Month the Moon passes through 360'+ 27' degrees (approximately) and takes 29.530588716 days.

A Calendar Month is the month as computed in an aimanack and consists of either 30 or 31 days except in February, when it has 28, but in Leap Year 29 days.

A Sidereal Year is the period of one complete revolution of the Earth round the Sun.

A Tropical (or Solar) Year is the interval between two successive returns of the Sun to the same tropic or equinox. Owing to the `Precession of the Equinoxes` the Sidereal Year exceeds the Tropical Year by 0.014119 days, or 20m. 20s.

The Anomalistic Year is the period between two successive times at which the Earth is at perihelion. In this year the Earth passes through 360' 11' 25', and takes 365.259544 days.

The Julian Year (arranged in the time of Julius Caesar) was made to consist of 365.1/4 days.

The Civil Year always consists of an exact number of days, 365 or 366. The extra periods of 6 hours, when the years are made to be of 365 days, are added together every fourth year and added to February, which then has 29 days, and we are then said to have Leap Year. To prevent error further adjustments are rnade

Equinoctial Time is the time that has elapsed since the Vernal Equinox (March 21st); that is, since the sun crossed the line (or Equator) in Spring.

HOW TO TELL LEAP YEAR'

Leap year (consisting of 366 days) is found by dividing the year of our Lord (Anno Domini, or A.D.) by 4; if there is no remainder it is Leap Year; if otherwise, the remainder shows how many years it is after Leap Year. When, however, the number terminates a century as 1500, 1900, the year has only 365 days, except when the hundreds are divisible by 4, as in 2000, 2400, 1600. where 20, 24, and 16 are divisible by 4.

SHIP'S TIME

Ship's Time is measured in " watches " of four hours each, calcuated from noon or midnight. Four to eight p.m. is divided into two periods of 2 hours each, called " dog-watches." Thus 12 to 4 p.m. is called the afternoon watch, 4 to 6 the 1st dog-watch; 6 to 8 the 2nd dog- watch; 8 to 12 the 1st night-watch; 12 to 4 a.m. the middle watch; 4 to 8 a.m. the morning watch; 8 to 12 noon the forenoon watch.

A bell is rung every half-hour to show how many half hours of the watch have expired; e.g., 6.30 a.m. is Morning watch 5 bells."

TO KNOW THE DAYS IN EACH MONTH

Thirty days hath September,

April, June, and November:

February has twenty-eight alone,

And all the rest have thirty-one.

But Leap Year coming once in four,

Then gives February one day more.

THE SEASONS

SPRING Commences March 2]st (Vernal Equinox) and lasts 92 days 21 hours. SUMMER commences June 22nd (Summe Solstice) and lasts 93 days 14 hours. AUTUMN commences September 23rd (Autunn Equinox) and lasts 89 days 17.3/4 hours.

WINTER commences December 22nd (Winter Solstice) and lasts 89 days 1 hour.

The longest day is June 21st. The shortest day is December 21st.

QUARTER DAYS

ENGLAND, IRELAND AND SCOTLAND

Lady Day 25th March.                 Candlemas Day 2nd February.

Midsummer 24th June.               Whitsunday 15th May.

Michaelmas 29th September.     Lammas Day 1st August.

Christmas 25th December.         Martinmas 11 th November

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